Sunday, January 26, 2020

The Role of Diplomat and Functions

The Role of Diplomat and Functions INTRODUCTION Communication and technology has been the driving force of a new world order of globalization affecting areas of the international system bringing about certain developments and changes that affects statecraft and the roles of the professionals that carries out this functions for the state. The role of a diplomat has a tremendous impact on foreign policy decision which consequently finds expression through certain means such as communication and technology, with the primary motive of using information and representation as a vital instrument of diplomacy. Diplomacy therefore can be said to be defined â€Å"as the professional management of relations across sovereignty† (Melissen, 1999, p.1). Over time the growth in communication and technology has had major effect on how diplomats carry out their functions and the major roles they play bringing about certain changes from the diplomacy of the Ancient periods to the present day modern diplomacy. However, in examining how the changes in communication and technology has affected the role of the modern diplomat this essay is going to examine the historical context of diplomatic communication, the roles of the modern diplomat, the impact of communication and technology in diplomacy, how certain changes have affected the roles of the modern day diplomat and thereby concluding with certain solutions that would improve the negative effects of communication and technology on the roles of the modern diplomat. THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF DIPLOMATIC COMMUNICATION. Diplomatic communications in the past was basically done by non technological means through the use of very obscure methods such as signs, wooden tablets and the use of messengers. According to Melissen the first record of a diplomatic communication was in form of a letter written on a stone which was to be delivered by a messenger who walked 2000 kilometers to perform his roles.(1999,p.3). The use of the messenger symbolized representation of the country in communicating certain issues of foreign policy to the other country making sure that every information was confidential and delivered to the right person with total understanding of its content. During this period the method of delivering letters was one of the most effective ways to carry out diplomatic relations with the messenger as the professional who has the ultimate role of making sure the purpose of the representation is achieved and also responsible for giving his home government feedback on his diplomatic mission. The messenger served as a form of sovereign equality between the countries and was being sent because of certain qualities which he possessed and as the countrys confidant. (Melissen 199 9,p.4) Also elites in the society and men of very high reputations experienced in states affairs were also given roles of negotiating agreements on behalf of their state government. (Leguey-Feilleux 2009, p.25) The messengers served at different levels of state postings for a period of time reporting and collating many conversations with the king, palace officials and other foreign diplomats (Melissen 1999, p.4). They basically helped in carrying out major functions that facilitated the several achievements of their government. The messengers also engaged in several strategic activities such as forming alliances with neighboring countries and intelligence collation of political issues. (Melissen 1999, p.5). They were also used to foster trade negotiations between counties on behalf of their home countries. These messengers also had to be resident abroad to constantly perform duties because traveling was very dangerous and often difficult. (Leguey-Feilleux 2009, p.24). At this time there were no good road networks or viable transportation system in other words messengers traveled very long distances to perform roles in very unsafe conditions. Consequently Leguey-Feilleux emphasizes on the fact that, these messengers were been used as a source of contact between their countries and their neighbors playing roles of mediation and were also used to make preparation for court visits, served as agents on temporary and adhoc missions, engaged in crucial debates with other representatives over their governments policies and engaged in information gathering of both internal and external relations (Leguey-Feilleux 2009, p.31-36) Consequently diplomats also submitted protest, presented legal claims for review, made proposals, represented at social functions and tolerated diversity of civilizations (Melissen 1999, p.9) There was also the exchange of objects, drawings and gifts that clearly stated out the diplomatic intentions of the diplomats and the kind of relationship they want to maintain. (Bianca, 2009, No 1). Despite all these roles clearly stated there were some limitations that brought about the need for an improvement on the roles of the diplomat (messenger). Challenges such as animosity in a mission and bad behavior altered communications between states and made some representatives unfriendly with each other. (Eban, 1998, p.27). Governments were also in doubts of the representatives they sent on missions in other words they were not given total authority on certain issues of international politics considerably there was the problem of cultural and language differences which sometimes made missions not so productive and some times the messengers were captured for ransom.(Leguey-Feilleux,2009,p36-40). But with time things began to change especially as country moved from one political era to another and with the creation of improvised means of communication and the lingering evidence of interdependence which is today known as globalization coupled with the conscious growth of technology. Melissen confirms this by emphasizing on the growth of civilization as flourishing diplomatic practice (1999, p.7). According to Leguey-feilleux, the fourteen and the fifteenth century improvement on communications and technology intensified diplomatic practices and sharpened the roles of a diplomat marking the renaissance period the beginning of modern diplomacy which brought about significant diplomatic innovations. (2009, p.37) During this period slight changes were made to make the roles of the diplomat more efficient and specific. As regards this there were more diplomatic missions established abroad giving the instance of the first realistic resident embassy in Italy (Melissen1999, p.13) New forms of activities arrived; government started using couriers, ciphers, codes, telegrams, pomps and ceremonies were seen as being vital but traveling still remained difficult. (Leguey-feilleux, 2009, p. 42) In addition the nineteenth century brought an improvement to the roles of diplomat with the creation of multilateral diplomacy where by diplomats had a larger playing ground to perform their roles. (Leguey-Feilleux, 2009, p 43). THE ROLES OF THE MODERN DIPLOMAT. Gradually with the emergence of the twentieth century the roles of the modern diplomat increased in different dimensions and moved considerably to a global level with obvious changes in communication and a severe impact from technology. According to the Vienna Convention some of these roles are as follows; The representation of state socially, politically and ceremonially in other countries. The protection of states interest, overseas nationals and states commercial activities. Negotiations on behalf of government and signing of agreements. Information gathering of states activities externally, and in missionary cases, gathering information from host countries. The promotion of cordial and friendly relations in the international system. (Encyclopedia Britannica,2009, No.164602) Other major functions are as follows; which finds expression in political activities, trade activities and consular activities. This trade activities as to do with knowing about commercial developments, while the consular deals with the major local activities of its host country and political activities are majorly maintaining good political relationships abroad. (Eban 1998, p.33-39) Consequently the roles of the modern diplomat can extend to his family basically on the social aspect and morals of good behavior. According to Wood, the roles of a diplomat has a form of professional identity on their wives and family, giving the example of the wife of a Mexican diplomat who contributed to her husbands roles by writing a book on diplomatic identity.(2004,volume 25) Diplomats also play major roles such as being among a committee to draft a charter giving the example of Lord Gladwyn a British diplomat who took part in drafting the United Nations Charter. (Stout, 1996, p.2) Diplomats also create relationships and maintain good level of communication between external affairs and internal structures.(Watkins, 2008, No1). THE IMPACT OF COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY AND ITS EFFECT ON THE ROLES OF THE MODERN DIPLOMAT. Globalization is the major catalyst of the wind of change that has blown into the works of the modern diplomat. Starting from the consular diplomat to the political and all other areas, the issues of global interdependence and its continuation through technological means of communication as left little for the diplomat to function on but in no doubt there are some major achievements as a result of this change. Consequently technology as brought about faster means of carrying out diplomatic statecraft functions which can be seen according to Melissen â€Å"through the invention of devices such as telephone, technological transportation systems, telecommunications and the internet. (1999, p.171) As a result of this diplomats can do their works faster without fear of danger especially while traveling, there are better methods of communicating with friendly relations without walking long distances, there are more graphical technological instruments that describes complex economic and political situations that helps the diplomat to be effective in his work and also help the government of the day to whom he reports to. According to Melissen. The creation of the rail way transportation gave the diplomats a very good edge in performing their functions on land, also with the creation of electric telegraph and fax machines which has enabled faster communication between diplomatic relations.(1999,p.171) Leguey_feilleux also describes major technological innovations as substantially contributing to the evolving of new diplomatic methods that shapes the roles of the modern diplomat at the level of communication (2009, p.46). The impact of the media in fostering the roles of the modern diplomat are not underestimated as well, giving information and sometimes helps in relaying diplomatic intentions to the public creating a from of feedback process from the public to the government. The creation and the application of IT (information Technology) is no exception to the fostering of modern diplomatic roles with the increasing performance of hardware and software for information gathering (Melissen, 1999, p.171). With this development information is easily accessible and can be codified there by serving as a source of security for important documentations and intelligence finding. This would practically make the diplomat work more efficiently to accomplish missions. Looking closely all this impact on modern diplomatic roles finds expression in digitalization bringing new management tools, low cost on access to information and integrated resources of information. (Melissen, 1999, p.171) The use of media especially as regards public diplomacy has fostered the role of the diplomat in breaking down cultural barriers between its policy officers and the specified public. (Gilboa,2000,No. 3) This thereby creates a political atmosphere for better functioning. Despite all this major impact of communication and technology, there has been major changes that as served to displace the roles of the modern diplomat. Melissen confirms this by saying that, â€Å"the position of a diplomat is related to the sovereignty of a state which as a result of globalization as thrown into questions the viability of a state to manage social, economic and political affairs.†(1999, p.173) Looking closely as well, the creation of international organizations, such as ILO (international labor organization), United Nations and Commonwealth undertake certain functions diplomats carry out because of the states membership and inability to solve certain problems. (Leguey- Feilleux, 2009, p.45). Economic initiatives such as the Bretoonwoods system and GATT were majorly done out of the context of the roles of the diplomat, it was basically done and concluded by international organizational members (Leguey- Feilleux, 2009, p.45). Without any doubt, the use of telephones, media and satellite communication has weakened diplomatic representatives (Melissen, 1999, p.171) Heads of states now conclude on foreign relations via telephones without the representation of the diplomat and also hold conference meetings with other heads of state via video calls and internet conferencing. This gives the diplomat little to do because its role on representation is being replaced with some form of technological breakthrough. Also some international organizations perform major diplomatic assignments on their own by sending special officers on special missions, interfering in external dispute thereby altering the roles of the diplomat (Leguey-feilleux 2009, p.46) Further more there is the emergence of transnational actors whom as a result of technology have supporters around the world, yielding into political power itself without any form of representation. (Leguey-Feilleux 2009, p.46) For example looking at the connections between elites of a society with other elites outside its countries who basically have business relationships with each other and make decisions that affect states policies without official representative of the state. Consequently also the relationships between diplomats and their government is changing, when there are misconceptions on issues states actors just use the most effective technology to communicate.(Leguey-feilleux,2009,p.86) More so giving the fact that the concept of power as changed in the international system, there is no more clear distinction of the concept of diplomacy. (Melissen.1999, p.175). This simply refers to the obvious that major international organizations mediate the act of diplomacy on their own especially when it comes to war situations or peacekeeping without totally involving diplomats but involving state actors at some point. More over the source of information is regarded to be more powerful than even territory and physical resources. (Melissen 1999, p.175) According to Nye and Owen in this fast growth of an international political system aided by technology, information is seen as the ultimate weapon of state relations (Nye and Owen cited in Melissen, 1999, p.175). As a result of this states actors on their own hirer special officers to look into certain issues and bring viable information rather than leaving it to the diplomats. Nye and Owen further argue that; the importance of technology, education and institutional flexibility is increasing and its changing the roles of foreign policy actors and also their governments in managing and promoting national interest.(Nye and Owen cited in Melissen 1999,p.175). the understanding this gives is that supranational organizations are becoming more powerful in the international system which affects statecraft and consequently affects the works of the technocrats under its administration not making them effective as they use to be. Information technology is gradually making spatial concept irrelevant looking at the use of satellite in space to get first hand information which basically alters a diplomats role in gathering information (Melissen 1999, p.176). This basically implies that others especially the media already have the same information as well and can deliver the information even before the diplomat does. Another major effect of technology is the Media. According to Leguey-feilleux, The CNN factor makes information instantly known around the world which mounts pressure on state to find solutions in time which consequently gives diplomats very short time to deliberate, strategize and respond to issues. (2009, p.87). Eban in his book calls this â€Å"The Intrusive Media† (1998, p.75). The media is basically seen as an obstruction often which basically slows diplomatic duties and bring about inadequate decision making. But Eban points out to the fact that no matter the situation of the media the diplomat still as to put in to consideration his partner and his own public opinion.(1998,p.75) CONCLUSION Consequently the many changes in communication and technology has its major positives sides using the telephone as an example which can be used to carryout roles especially in warring situations without being in physical danger of any kind. Giving the example of the â€Å"mediation by telephone in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict which brought the signing of the Oslo peace process between the two countries in 1995† (Leguey-Feilleux, 2009, p. 89). Technology has also helped to facilitate the work of diplomatic intelligence with the creation of electronic spying, network power, early warning and crises management and cyber security.(Leguey-Feilleux,2009,p.92-94) Therefore the role of a modern diplomat can basically be managed with respective cooperation from the state actors, civil service and the Foreign Service itself. With each understanding the underlying factors of its functions without clashes of any kind as regards communication, information and technology. BIBLIOGRAPHY Leguey-Feilleux, J.(2009),The Dynamics of Diplomacy (Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc.). Eban, A. (1998), Diplomacy for the Next Century (Yale University). Melissen, J. (1999), Innovation in Diplomatic Practice (Macmillan Press Ltd.) Wood, M. (2004), â€Å"A Diplomats Wife in Mexico: Creating Professional, political and National Identities in the Early Twentieth century† A Journal of Women Studies Volume 25. Stout, D. (1996), â€Å"Lord Gladwyn, British Diplomat, U.N Leader (News) (Obituary)† Daily News Los Angeles CA,October 27.,pp.2. Gilboa, E. (2000), â€Å"Media coverage of International Negotiation: A taxonomy of levels and effects† International Negotiation Journal, Volume 5, NO.3 Bianca, C. (2009) â€Å"Digging for Antiquities with Diplomats:Gisbet Cuper (1644-1716) and His Social Capital† Republic of Letters : A Journal for the study of knowledge, politics and the arts Volume 1, No.1 Watkins J. (2008), â€Å"Toward a New Diplomatic History† Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies Volume 38, No.1. Encyclopedia Britannica, (2009). â€Å"Diplomacy†, Retrieved 07/01/10, from Encyclopedia Britannica online. Http://www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/164602/Diplomacy. Melissen, J.(2009), â€Å"Americas Information Edge† in S. Nye and W.A. Owen, Innovation in Diplomatic practice. (Macmillan Press Ltd),PP. 175

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Northern Mariana Islands and Guam History

Guam History: A Review of the Island’s Unique History VincentAnthony V. Borja English 135 Professor Rosemary Harty April 21, 2011 Over the past 10 years, random people would ask me about the history of Guam, and how it became a United States territory. Grew up most of my life on Guam, but never really cared about its history, although, every year we would celebrate its liberation day from the Japanese and celebrate festive holidays significant to the islands history, I never really understood why we celebrated it. The Spanish Era, the American Period, & the Japanese occupation played a major influence on the island and its culture today.The island of Guam, Guahan in native Chamorro, is a truly multi-ethnic community that reflects the cultures of its original Chamorro inhabitants as early as 2,000 B. C. , influenced by countless European, American, Asian, Micronesian, and other people who have occupied, visited and immigrated to Guam since the 16th Century. Many question the di scovery by the Spaniards, the occupation of the Americans and the Japanese that shaped the island’s history that makes its culture very fascinating. Understanding the islands struggles that have lead to the American status that it eventually became after many centuries of fighting.Guam of today is truly a mixed community with a distinctive culture, the foundation of which is ancient Chamorro heavily influenced by the Spanish occupation and the Catholic Church. Strong American influence is also evident in the celebration of many public holidays, the form of Government and the pride in being U. S. that is displayed by the natives. Guam’s culture has also been influenced and enriched by the Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Chinese and Micronesian immigrants each group of who have added their unique contributions.According to the 2000 Census of Population and Housing the present population of Guam, is approximately 154,805 whom roughly 37% are Chamorro, 26% Filipino, 11% other Pacific Islander with the remaining 26% primarily Caucasian, Chinese, Korean and Japanese, all of whom bring their cultural heritage and customs and contribute to Guam’s unique culture and appeal. (U. S. Department of Commerce, 2004) SPANISH ERA According to the journals of Antonio Pigafetta, whom was an Italian scholar and traveler form the republic of Venice.Pigafetta travelled with Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and recorded most of Magellan’s travels. Ferdinand Magellan on March 6, 1521, first discovered the island. (Pigafetta, 1995, p. 18) During his stop on the island, the natives canoed out to the ships and stole everything that was not secured or tied down. The weakened sailors had trouble fending off the tall and robust natives until a few shots from the  Trinidad’s big guns frightened them off the ship and they retreated into the surrounding jungle. The purpose of Magellan’s visit was to restock on supplies and find food.After Magellan ’s travel throughout the Marianas, it was primarily his experience on Guam that the Marianas was named Li Ladroni, the island of thieves. (Suarez, 1999, p. 133) Although Magellan was considered the first European explorer to step foot on Guam's beaches, it was known that Guam and the other Mariana islands were formally claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1565 by General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi for Spain. King Phillip II of Spain wanted trade to begin with the Phillipine islands, islands named after him. Legazpi was sent across the pacific from Mexico, which was a colony of Spain in 1564.During Legazpi’s sail across the pacific, King Phillip ordered him to take possession of all land and any island encountered. Additionally, he wanted Legazpi to find a route between Mexico and the Philllipines that would go through the pacific. Legazpi and his fleet reached Guam on January 22, 1565 and docked his ships for four days. After days of waiting, they finally went on shore on Janu ary 26, 1565 to claim Guam and posted the Spain flag. (Cunningham ; Beaty, 2001) Legazpi and his men stayed on Guam for eleven days.During this visit, Legazpi was so afraid of upsetting the Chamorro’s that he ordered all crew members not to go on shore without his permission. The Chamorro’s were much friendlier, canoeing out to greet the voyagers with food and supplies, a much different experience the Spanish explorers had remembered during their last Guam visit. Clever and sly, the Chamorro’s were always trying to trade rice for nails. Frequently the natives would fool the voyagers by placing rice in the top of the bag and filling the bottom with rocks and straw.When the men went ashore to fill the kegs with water, an altercation took place, and one of Legazpi’s men was killed. Legazpi was upset and ordered a hundred men to go to the island and punish the Chamorro’s. The result was three Chamorro’s hung and killed; and many houses and canoe s burned. Following the incident Legazpi declared anchors to be lifted and the Spaniards journeyed for the Philllipines. (Rogers, 1995, p. 14) Catholocism was the first religion introduced on the island during the 1600’s.The major influence and main support came from one of the main leaders on the island during that time. Chief Quipuha was the maga’lahi or highest-ranking male, in the area of Hagatna when the Spanish landed off its shores in 1668. On June 15, 1668 missionaries led by Spanish Jesuit Padre Diego Luis de San Vitores of Burgos, of Spain, whom landed off the shores of Hagatna. They were greeted and welcomed by Chief Quipuha, the name Ke puha or Quipuha means, â€Å"to uphold†. Chief Quipuha was so welcoming to these missionaries; he even offered a plot of land in Hagatna for the mission. Political Status Education Coordinating Commission, 1995) It was on this offered land where the first Catholic Church in Guam was built and Catholicism was introduce d. Chief Quipuha died in 1669, but his legacy left a tremendous impact that allowed the Spanish to continue its legacy for the Manila Galleon trade, which was the exchange of goods between Asia and Mexico. (Naval Station Guam) About a century later, In April of 1672, Padre Diego Luis de San Vitores and his Filipino assistant were killed by Chief Mata’ pang of Tumon for baptizing the Chief’s baby girl without the Chief’s consent. (Rogers, 1995, p. 5) It is theorized, that Mata’ pang may have acted out of frustration from being compelled to the harsh rule of a foreign Spanish king. Whereas San Vitores tried to carry out his mission in a peaceful manner, the Spanish military ruthlessly governed the local populace to protect their Galleon routes. Regardless of Mata’ pangs motives, the death of San Vitores lead to an all-out war that nearly resulted in extinction of the Chamorro race. Sources have estimated Chamorro casualties to the fighting and diseas e reduced the population from 200,000 to roughly 5,000 by 1741, mostly women and children.The Spaniards imported Spanish soldiers and Filipino’s to restock the population, marking the end of the pure Chamorro bloodline. (Rogers, 1995, pp. 41-57) After 1695, Chamorro’s were forced to settle in five villages: Hagatna, Agat, Umatac, Pago, and Fena, were monitored by the priests and military garrison, forced to attend Church daily and to learn Spanish language and customs. In 1740, Chamorro’s of the Northern Marianas Islands, except Rota, were removed from their home islands and exiled to Guam.Mata’ pang himself was killed in a final battle on the island of Rota in 1680. Having been vilified for the incident that sparked the decimation of the pure Chamorro race, the name Mata’ pang has evolved to mean silly. (Donald L. Platt, 2009) During the 18th century, the English pirates who visited Guam to take on supplies and provisions preyed upon the Spanish g alleons. Guam was a host to a number of scientists, voyagers, and whalers from Russia, France, and England some of whom provided detailed accounts of the daily life on Guam under Spanish rule.Evidence of Spanish buildings, bridges, churches and forts can still be seen across the island, especially in the southern areas of the island. Spanish cannon still overlooks Hagatna and Umatac bays from Forts Agueda and Soledad, the Plaza de Espana, once the Spanish Governor’s Palace, still stands in central Hagatna, and sunken Spanish galleons still lie under Guam’s crystal clear waters. The architecture and design of structures build long after the Spanish era, such as the bridge in Umatac, which still has distinct Spanish quality. (Donald L.Platt, 2009) AMERICAN PERIOD During the Spanish-American war Guam was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Spanish American war in 1898 and Guam was formally purchased from Spain for $20 million in 1899. At the time of the turnover, the local population of Guam had grown to about 10,000 inhabitants. U. S. President William McKinley issued an executive order placing Guam within the administration of the Department of the Navy. Captain R. P. Leary was appointed the island’s first U. S. Governor. (Rogers, 1995, p. 14) Under Navy administration, Guam experienced many improvements in the areas of agriculture, public health, sanitation, education, land management, taxes, and public works. Orders issued by Captain Leary on August 16, 1899, regulated the importation and sale of intoxicating liquors; regulated the celebration of church and other holidays; prohibited the transfer of land without the consent of the government; prohibited concubine and required that marriage be performed between persons that were cohabiting; prohibited exportation of certain articles in common use among he people; required persons without a trade or regular employment to pant specified commodities and keep cer tain live stock; regulated the keeping of dogs and other animals running at large; abrogated the Spanish system of taxation and provided a new one; established a public system of nonsectarian education; and required each adult to learn to write his or her own name within a specified time. (Rogers, 1995, p. 119) In 1927, the people of Guam, including schoolchildren who donated a penny each, collected $703. 92 to have a ship’s bell and a commemorative plaque manufactured in Shanghai, China.The bell was presented to the Navy and has served distinctively on each of the three USS Guam Naval vessels. (Palomo, 1999)The U. S. Navy continued to use Guam as a refueling and communication station until 1941, when it fell to invading Japanese forces shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. â€Å"The bell, along with a commemorative bronze plaque, has been returned to Guam after the decommissioning of the USS Guam, an amphibious assault ship (LPH-9), on August 25, 1998 at the Norfolk, Vi rginia, Naval Base. The USS Guam is the third Navy vessel named after Guam. † (Palomo, 1999)JAPANESE OCCUPATION On December 10, 1941, Guam surrendered to the Japanese South Seas detachment after a valiant defensive struggle by the island’s Insular Force Guard and a limited number of U. S. Marines. Guam became the only populated U. S. soil to be occupied by another country in World War II. Guam was renamed â€Å"Omiya Jima† and for 31 months, the people of Guam were forcibly subjected to intolerable hardships administered by the Japanese military. Although some measure of religious practice and business activities were permitted, atrocities, grenade slaughters and rapes were common.The 29th Division of Japan’s Kwantung Army established concentration camps and approximately 600 Chamorro’s were executed. (Rogers, 1995, pp. 163-181) Some Chamorro’s were beheaded when the Japanese learned of the 3-year humanitarian effort by Chamorro’s to s uccessfully feed and hide U. S. Navy radioman George Tweed, who escaped in the initial invasion. Tweed’s cave is a popular â€Å"boonie stomping† destination on Guam today. (Babuata, 2009) Many landmarks of the Japanese occupation, including gun emplacements and tunnels can still be seen around the island of Guam. LIBERATION AND U. S. TERRITORIAL STATUSRecord tonnage of naval bombardment in which thousands of Japanese and Chamorro’s marked the campaign for the liberation of Guam lost their lives and the city of Hagatna was nearly destroyed. American forces landed on July 21, 1944 at Asan and Agat beaches. In honor of the bravery and sacrifices of all those who participated in the Pacific Theater of World War II, including soldiers, sailors and marines of the United States, Japan, Australia, Canada, China, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and the Soviet Union, the landing area has been designated as the â€Å"War in the Pacific National Histo ric Park. During the following bitter three week campaign, 7,000 U. S. and 11,000 Japanese lives were lost before Guam was reclaimed and once again under American administration. (Aguon, 2009) Today, July 21st, Guam Liberation Day, is a major Guam holiday. All government offices and most businesses are closed as the island celebrates with daylong fiestas and a parade down Marine Corps drive in Hagatna. Because of its strategic position, Guam was used as a command post for U. S. Western Pacific operations until the War came to an end in 1945. On May 30, 1946, the U. S. Naval Government was re-established.Although concluded over 50 years ago, World War II still exerts a major influence on Guam. Relics and evidence of the War are still evident all across the island and divers can survey wrecks of Japanese, American, German and other ships and airplanes under Guam’s warm clear waters. On January 24, 1972, the last Japanese World War II holdout, Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi, was discove red in the cave in which he had been hiding since his unit was scattered by the advancing Americans in July 1944. Sergeant Yokoi’s cave at Talofofo falls has been preserved as a popular attraction for visitors. (Aguon, 2009) As the Westernmost U.S. soil in the Pacific, Guam today remains a strategic outpost for the U. S. military. In 1949, U. S. President Harry S. Truman signed the Organic Act making Guam an unincorporated territory of the United States with limited self-governing authority and granting American citizenship to the people of Guam. In 1962, security clearance requirement for travel to Guam, which had been in place since World War II, were lifted permitting Guam’s economy to flourish and opening an influx of new residents of diverse nationalities and races such as Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Indian, Pacific Islanders nd Caucasian. (Rogers, 1995) CULTURE The core of Guam culture, the Chamorro, is characterized by a complex social protocol centered upon respect, caring, accepting and helping one another. Inafa’maolek, or interdependence, is a central value in Chamorro culture that depends on a spirit of cooperation. Historian Lawrence Cunningham in 1992 wrote, â€Å"In a Chamorro sense, the land and its produce belong to everyone. This is the armature, or core, that everything in Chamorro culture revolves around. It is a powerful concern for mutuality rather than individualism and private property rights. The culture is visibly manifested in the kissing of the hands of elders, passing of legends, music, dance, chants, courtship rituals, handicrafts, burial rituals, preparation of herbal medicines, and requesting forgiveness from spiritual ancestors when entering a jungle. Glimpses of Guam culture are evident in local legends and folklore such as the taotaomona (ancient spirits), doomed lovers leaping to their death off Two Lover’s Point (Puntan Dos Amentes), and Sirena, a beautiful young girl who became a merma id. Guam Society and Culture Complete Report, 2010) The Spanish occupation was based on conquest and conversion to â€Å"save the heathen souls†, implemented by force, which nearly resulted in the total extermination of the pure Chamorro race. However, the Spanish failed to recognize that the Chamorro culture was matrilineal and largely ignored the influence of the Chamorro women, which likely accounts for the fact that the Chamorro culture has endured to this day. The greatest influence of the Spanish over Guam’s culture was through the Catholic Church, which has, since the 17th century, been the center of village activity.Today, every village has its patron saint whose feast day is celebrated with an elaborate fiesta, to which the entire island is invited. These fiestas, whereupon by duty, extended families contribute food and work to cook for the village guests remain a key attribute of the culture of Guam till’ this day. Chamorro society emphasizes respect f or the elderly. The practice of  manngingi (â€Å"to smell†) entails sniffing the right hand of an elderly person to express one's deep regard. Before colonial rule, Chamorro’s recognized the power and authority of clan elders.Informal positions of authority were granted to elders who commanded the respect of their clan members. Elders could pool the labor and material resources of their clans in times of need. (Guam Society and Culture Complete Report, 2010) Today thousands of tourist visit the island to experience a blend of Spanish, Micronesian, Asian and western influences that have inhabited Guam for the past 300 years. The experience of the island’s history and living traditions when you visit historic sites or by sampling some of the island’s delicious food.In conclusion, because Guam is the because island in the pacific, and a strategic point in the pacific, it is a valuable territory that will always be secured by America and very much apprecia ted. Although, the natives appreciate the Americas presence and Guam’s current political status on the island, they are still fighting for a lot of the original land to be returned to original landowners. The natives endured many struggles from Spain and Japan in order for the island to be what it is today.The diverse influence that started from the Spanish era, the Japanese occupation, and then the liberation from the Americans is what makes the Chamorro culture very unique. The new generation is fighting to preserve what is left of the island’s history, and many organizations are working to promote the culture through song and music. References Aguon, Katherine, PhD and Palomo, Tony. WWII: From Occupation to Liberation, referenced April 12, 2011, 2009 Guampedia, URL: http://guampedia. com/wwii-from-occupation-to-liberation/ Babauta, Leo. George Tweed, referenced April 11, 2011, 2009 Guampedia, URL: http://guampedia. om/george-tweed/ Ballendorf, Dirk & Foster, Sophie. Guam. (2011). In Encyclop? dia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/247691/Guam Coomans, Fr. Peter. (1997). History of the Mission in the Mariana Islands: 1667 –  Ã‚  1673. Occasional Historical Papers Series No. 4. Translated and edited by Rodrigue Levesque. Saipan, CM:  Ã‚  Division of Historic Preservation Cunningham, Lawrence J. ; Beaty, Janice J. 2001 A History of Guam. Hagatna, GU; Bess Press Guam Society and Culture Complete Report. World Trade Press Date Published: 2010 LC Call Number: DU647 ISBN: 9781607804727 Naval Station Guam.Chief Quipuha (Ke puha) Statue. Retrieved April 09,2011 from http://ns. gov. gu/quipua. html Palomo, Antonio. The Guam Bell. Referenced April 14, 2011. 1999 Guam. org, URL: http://guam. org. gu/guambell/ Rogers, Robert F. (1995). Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press. Under the Organic Act 1950-1970 224-232 Smith, J. (2004). Martin Luther. In L. Mc Donald (ed. ), Encyclopedia of science and religion. Babson Press. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from http://www. scireligion. com/ml Suarez, Thomas (1999). Early Mapping of Southeast Asia. Singapore; Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd.

Friday, January 10, 2020

Were respectable Victorians any more concerned about sex than their great grandparents had been?

Before one can answer the question above, two key terms need to be explained: ‘respectable' and ‘sex'. The Victorian climate was such that the term respectable is usually applied only to those members of society with sufficient status to be marked out as noticeable in a rural/urban setting. To this extent, it is perhaps more correct to realise that the question is aiming towards those Victorians of middle to high status than those of the middle and upper classes. More to the point, respectable may mean either those people of status, or those men of high status. Sex' is a term that carries two main connotations, intercourse and gender. Gender itself is a pretty wide ranging issue, covering the role of women in both social life and in the home, as well as increasing political activity from females. In effect, the question is somewhat multi-faceted, and requires a three-sided response: how far were men more aware of women's need and rights in the nineteenth century than in the eighteenth; how did the role of the female change between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and, how did general attitudes towards intercourse and women change in a broader sense? This final question invites a response on how sex was taught, or indeed practised, in the Victorian period. One can see a change in the nineteenth century towards a society that was more concerned with some aspects of sex, especially those carnal. As Michael Mason puts it, the sexual practices of the early nineteenth century experienced a ‘crisis of confidence'. Yet by mid-century, trends of concubinage and commitment meant that traditional (male) practices of prostitution were considerably displaced. As the attitudes of men changed towards a family environment, so did the role of women. Women became not only homemakers but also socially active people, rather than their traditional role of sitting in the background and looking pretty. Trends in literature towards such feminist authors as the Bronte sisters and Jane Austen, as well as strong feminist trends in some of Dickens' literature, were representative of a society considering the roles of women and bringing their rights to the fore. Trends also changed from the passive acceptance of wife beating towards an admittedly passive non-acceptance of such practices. In effect, there were many significant changes towards a society that accepted sex in all its forms far more than a century before, albeit in a more austere fashion. Firstly the question of the awareness of women needs to be addressed more fully. As trends of marriage changed towards a more family based atmosphere, so did the attitudes towards the Victorian woman. A female Queen, for whom the country held a significant respect, precipitated an almost passive acceptance of the female import in society. The Victorian man was, unlike his great grandparents, frowned upon for un- gentlemanly behaviour in the home. A change toward this acceptance of the female role was precursor to the increased role of the male in family life. As L Davidoff has claimed, men spent much more time at work but were also ‘in and out of the house place†¦ helping with the children†¦ taking part in the endless rounds of tea drinking and dropping in of relatives' By the 50s, men were leaving active business to spend more time with family and to allow younger family members to take over the day to day running of affairs, often women being allowed to do this. Men were effectively becoming absorbed into what was previously, and exclusively, the female way of life. Alongside this change was the acceptance of women into such societies as the Rainbow Circle, with some such as the Primrose League being set up for women alone. Thus women were not only allowed a political voice, but were actively taking one also. The ideas of station in the family may not have changed, but they were certainly evened out. As urbanisation increased, so did the acceptance of female by men. In eighteenth century rural England, the middle classes were small, and the sense of community amongst them sparse, with urbanisation came middle class community, which had the effect of introducing a social code by which everyone was socially obligated to abide. Certain trends towards females did not change however, domestics and governesses were still female, yet the number of affairs between the head of the household and his servants decreased rapidly, yet this may be representative more of the austere privacy of the Victorian household which would be reluctant to admit such activities than an actual fall in such indiscretions. In effect, the attitudes towards women changed. They changed in both the way women were treated, and in the assumption of traditional female roles in the household of men. Yet the Victorian woman was equally different from her eighteenth century counterpart. The Victorian woman was a changing force in society. Such occurrences as the Custody of Infants Act of 1839, and the later trend for educating girls at schools (both precipitated women) give evidence to the changing female character. The Custody of Infants Act in particular is representative of the power able to be exercised by Victorian women over their husbands. This Act, which crystallised after the legal battle fought by Caroline Norton to keep her children after separation from a violent husband. This not only shows that the female had a right to her children in equal capacity to her husband, but also that there was an ability for a woman to challenge a man in a court- a legal power not previously seen. It also is indicative of the new emphasis on motherhood, or more to the point, its importance over and above the importance of the male figure. F M L Thompson, maybe over enthusiastically, terms this change in early Victorian female culture a precursor to ‘female rebellion'. He doses have a point however, at the time many thinkers both on the left and right such as Peter Gaskell and Richard Oastler felt that the family and consequently the moral fabric of society was about to collapse due to an increased female role. Changing the emergence of the politically interested female of all classes and statuses complemented this emancipation. Organisations such as the Primrose League were representative of not only a new working/middle class political voice, but also of a female voice. In addition to the having a voice in the political world, and in society, as well as legal rights, the right to divorce was also important. The Divorce Act of 1857 allowed wives for the first time to divorce their violent husbands, which was an important factor in the beginning of women's rights, which became codified legally over the ensuing century. It also had the effect of reducing the number of ambiguous separations, which were against the fabric of the Victorian family life. In effect, the change in the role of women was not huge, but it was significant. Rights within the family increased, as did station in society. Changing attitudes towards intercourse are also important. Marriage is important in this sphere also, as well as family life. One of the most striking features of Victorian England was the relative decline in prostitution compared with the increase of towns and cities. This may be attributed to the transformation towards a family atmosphere, and the importance of sexual relations in the home. This may be attributed towards the Victorian culture of evangelicalism and nonconformity both of which preached ideas of temperance, and the consequent decline in alcohol consumption amongst respectable people. Alongside this came a new awareness of sexual diseases, with many people feeling sufficiently more comfortable with themselves to request treatment. Sex as an act was more considered in the medical sphere also. Books were written detailing every aspect of sexuality, from academic books on ‘the orgasmic theory of ovulation' to Dr Becklard's self-help book ‘Becklard's physiology'. It is true however, that by the end of the Victorian period, bipolar attitudes towards sex, meant that women were portrayed in nature as either frigid or insatiable, and men absolved from blame as servants to their katabolic needs. In effect, although women experienced a change in their roles and their perception, as sexual objects, their portrayal was quite regressive. To this extent sex in terms of the portrayal of men and women was both progressive in terms of thinking and theory (although most often mistaken) yet also regressive in its portrayals of each sex and its consequent categorisations of the sexes, which not until Freud were reversed. In addition to this, for the first time, sex education was taught on a very primitive level at school, and carnal sex was mentioned at a very understated level at home. In effect, trends of sex education were just breaking through, but nonetheless they were there. In conclusion, the Victorians were more aware of sex, both categorical and carnal. Trends towards traditional sexual roles were changed as men frequently took over roles at home, and women often took over their husbands businesses after death. Family trends revolutionised the position of the male at home, along with a willingness to consider women's rights by allowing the Custody and Divorce Acts to be passed through parliament. Moreover, the Victorian female was able to push for such reform as she found a new social and political voice not before experience. This is not to say that suddenly the female was the central character in society, far from it. Husband continued to beat wives, and the Divorce Act didn't precipitate a mass rush for every abused female to divorce their husbands. The female role was still very much subordinate to the male, but it was significantly improved on the position of the eighteenth century female. Trends towards intercourse complemented this as trends in marriage changed the way Victorian men sought sex. Prostitution declined and the social/medical considerations of sex changed in a way not seen in the eighteenth century. Although the austere male dominated society still excused the male from any blame of carnal desire, as compared with the female who was pushed to extremes of frigidity or insatiability. In effect, awareness of sex was increased, or at least more openly discussed.

Thursday, January 2, 2020

My Writing Essay - 909 Words

My Writing In the past four years, I have written many papers for various classes, enjoying some and others having to choke out words to write down. In this memo I will describe my writing projects and how they made me become a better writer, and how they will continue to help develop me into a becoming a more prosperous writer. What I Really Learned in English 100 Well as a recent pupil of the Great McFadden I want to do all that I can to be on his good side, for he said that if I go one mile to meet him, he will go two miles to meet me, which seems more that fair. As an assignment I am told that I have to write what I learned in English 100 and how that it prepared me for English 200. Well since honesty is the best way of†¦show more content†¦Having taken many writing classes I have learned many things about writing. I enjoy writing and can often write many pages about things that I am interested in. I know that I have more learning to do about writing, and hopefully in the next couple weeks my knowledge of writing will have expanded and my writing will have improved. My Experience With Writing Arguments I am unaware of any writing arguments. The only thing I can really think of is writing a research paper with the intent to change people’s minds on a certain subject. I remember researching for weeks in the library, looking through magazine after magazine. I had searched for enough information to write a ten-page paper. The writing process of the paper took several weeks but when I had finished, all the hard work was worth the effort. I learned many things from that course such as that you need to search for all the information you can because it is better to have too much information than not enough. Also that course taught me many things about making references to the authors of the articles I used for my paper. 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